Risk factors, staging, and treatment of breast cancer

Introduction Breast cancer is a disease that originates from the breast tissue and the curative time of the patient is dependent on the level of spread and to what organs it has spread to. In the advent of new technology, computer models have been programmed and developed to help in the staging process and determine how long a person is going to live. Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Risk factors, staging, and treatment of breast cancer specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More With best treatments available, most of the breast cancer patients can survive up to ten years with a 98% to 10% disease free body within this period. On the other hand, it has been discovered that breast cancer is the most common type of cancer especially with women with the total percentage of 10% of all the kinds of cancer. This does not mean that it does not attack men but the probability is higher in women. If the diagnosis is fast a nd early, then the spread rate can be stemmed or even eliminated altogether. This requires the use of trained oncologists with the right equipments to be able to remove it from the stem altogether or if a cure is impossible then the patient’s life can be significantly prolonged with the aid of a cancer drugs. This is so because huge amounts of resources have been used in the research and the development of the breast cancer drugs that in effect help the body to combat the cancer by providing additional immune to boost the fighting power of the body. Additionally in the process of research, new methods that are effective the fight against drugs have been experimented and proven to be effective in the fight against the breast cancer. However, breast cancer remains a killer disease and more research needs to be conducted to ensure that its prevalence level is reduced (Hart, 2007). Age Age is very instrumental in determining the risk a woman has in getting breast cancer and the risk to get the breast cancer increases significantly as the woman ages. For instance it has been found that a woman living up to the age of 90 years has a risk factor of up to 14% to contact the cancer compared to a middle aged woman. The manner in which cancer attacks the two age’s differences is quite different. Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In older women, the cancer spreads slowly and is not as severe but in younger woman it attacks more vigorously and is difficult to control. In addition, it has also been out that in most cases of breast cancer in older people, a higher depression rate among the patients was noted, and this contributes to the faster death as compared to the younger people. This is because young people have the necessary hope to fight on due to the life before them but the older people have lost hope in life and when they are diagnosed most tends to seclude themselves or live in denial. This means that in the research for breast cancer apart from trying to develop cures and ways to eliminate the cancer, lots of research should also be done on the psychological support programs to help stem this tide (Hart, 2007). Gender Men have a lower risk of getting breast cancer compared to women but the risk is appearing to be on the increase in men too. This has been noted especially in the men with prostate cancer and in the case a man is affected the prognosis even in the first stage is very aggressive and worse than in women. The treatment for the cancer in men is the same as the treatment for an older woman and is a combination of surgery radiation and chemotherapy. Genetics Change or mutations of genes in our bodies can also increase the probability of having cancerous cells in the breasts. This is supported by studies that explicitly show that up to 10% of all breast cancers are hereditary. This is supported by the fact that women with both hereditary genes of breast cancer gene 1 and breast cancer gene2 have a higher risk of developing breast cancer with women having breast cancer gene 1 accounting for over 5% of all the cancers that occur. Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Risk factors, staging, and treatment of breast cancer specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Human epidermal growth receptor 2(HER2) is another gene that is found on the surface on the human skin and can increase the chance or probability of acquiring breast cancer. This is caused by the over production of the HER2 cells when the gene is altered. If this happens, then aggressive tumor cells develop which account to about 25-30% of all the cancer patients. If the p53 gene undergoes mutation then the risk is even more. This is confirmed by the studies that have shown that women with this mutated gene have a poorer breast cancer outcome than those tha t do not posses this gene (Ellmann, 2009). Family history The family history deeply increases the risk of having breast cancer especially if a close member had the cancer. To the victims whose mother or father had the cancer then the risk doubles. The following people have a risk of having the cancer depending on the background and according to the genetics. These conditions can increase breast cancer Having relatives with breast cancer Having relatives with two different kinds of cancer Having a male relative with case or cases of breast cancer .If the same family is of Ashkenazi Jewish heritage then the odds are even more A family history that includes history of diseases such as hereditary breast cancer and diseases such as Li-Fraumeni or even Cowdens Syndromes Diet It has been shown that there are higher rates and incidence of the breast cancer in areas that have high fat yield content in their diet like in the USA compared with the low fat yield places like Japan. However, th e link between the two is not straight and is dependent on the type of fats that a woman has. Monounsaturated fats are linked to low breast cancer risk compared with polyunsaturated fats that have a slightly higher prevalence. A study was conducted in the USA that showed that despite the link between the diet and the cancer, the reduction of fats in the diet does not automatically mean or lead to a reduction in the risk of having the breast cancer. However, it was found out that there is a 9% reduction rate in the postmenopausal women if they followed a strict low fat diet. In the end, it was decided that the cutting of fats in the diet can cause a reduced rate of risk in some women but they did not have the necessary solid evidence to make conclusions. Hormone replacement therapy Recent studies have indicated the use of this kind of therapy can add to the risk of breast cancer. In the year 2002 a study was carried out by the group Women heath initiative and it was found out that in they were eight cases of invasive breast cancer in about 10000 women. This represented an increase of about 26% compared to those who did not have the hormone replacement therapy. Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the same note, it was found out that between the years 2002 and 2003 there was an increase in the prevalence rate of the breast cancer. Although the tests and the results are not conclusive or even solid, this little link has alarmed experts who believe that women seeking hormone replacement therapy should consult an expert on the matter to ensure that they are well informed (Foster, 2008). Tobacco It had not been discovered that tobacco smoking could cause an increase of breast cancer until the beginning of the mid 1990’s when a number of studies were conducted on the same topic. The study had disturbing results that predicted a higher risk rate for both active and passive smokers. Based on the epidemiological studies and the mammary carcinogens, the rate had reached 70% by 2005. In the year 2006, another study was done which pegged the risk rate at a higher rate due to the risk of non-smokers who are passive smokers. This is especially rife in young women who can suffer from an increased risk rate of up to 70% if they are in their primary pre-menopausal stage because at this stage, the breast tissue is sensitive to the carcinogens; they are still young, and not fully developed Staging of breast cancer This process is used to determine the level in which the cancer has attacked the body making a diagnosis. Knowing the stage of the cancer is very important since the doctor gets to know the best way on which to offer treatment and how to determine the prognosis of the cancer (Foster, 2008). The staging is done in stages that are: Stage 0: This is called the pre-cancerous state because the cancer cells are located in the milk duct and have not yet spread to the breast tissue or have not invaded the nodes or distant sites. Such cancers like lobular carcinoma can be classified as stage 0 cancer. Stage 1: The cancer has started spreading to the other parts of the breast and the tumor is less than 2cm long however the cancer cells have not spread to the lymph nodes or even the distant cells. Stage II: This stage is divided into two categories namely stageIIA and stageIIB. In stage II, the tumor will be located and restricted to the breast with no further spreading. Finally, the tumor can be more than 2cm but less than 5cm and has not yet spread to the auxiliary nodes or the distant sites. StageIIB can involve cancer cells that have a tumor larger the 2cm but being less than 5cm. At this stage, the cancer cells will have spread to auxiliary nodes but the distant cells will be safe. In addition, during the later stages of the stage, the tumor is more than 5cm long but the spread to the chest walls will not have started. This stage also has the cells localized and have not spread to the distant sites Stage III has three sub categories that are categorized according to the level of spreading the cancer has undergone. In stageIIIA, the tumor is less than 5cm in diameter and the cells have spread to 4-9 auxiliary nodes but not to the dis tant sites. The tumor can be larger than 5cm in diameter and the cells having spread to the mammary nodes but the distant sites will still be healthy. In stageIIIB,the tumor can take up any size and the spread will have encroached the chest walls. The spreading of the cancer can be to the auxiliary nodes in the breast themselves or the lymph nodes that are near the breastbones. Finally in stageIIIC the tumor can be of any size and the cancer cells having spread to 10 0r more of the auxiliary cells or even to 1 or more of the regional lymph nodes or even to the internal mammary glands StageIV: At this stage, the tumor can take up any size depending on the attack and the cancerous cells might have spread to the lymph nodes that are nearby. In most cases, the cells will have spread to the distant cells (Foster, 2008). Treatment of cancer Treatment of breast cancer is dependent on the stage the cancer is and the whether the cells are sensitive to hormones. Personal preferences also com e into effect with many people preferring one method of treatment to another because of their own reasons. Overall, these methods are all-effective and are all instrumental in ensuring that all the cells are ejected from the body. Treatment methods The most common method is surgery. In surgery, there are many forms all depending on the level of spread and the staging. A lumpectomy is an effective way ot breast cancer treatment because the removes the entire tumor plus some surrounding cell tissues that are healthy. This method is however reserved for the smaller tumors. The entire breast can also be removed (mastectomy).In this method the doctor usually removes all the breast tissue and all the parts that border or are integral with the breast. The surgery can also be performed by removing one lymph node, this is because the cancer will have spread to that lymph alone and if removed the chance of finding cancer in other cells is very low to the point that the surgeon leaves all the other parts intact. On the other hand, several lymph nodes can also be removed depending on the level of spread (Ellmann, 2009). Radiation therapy â€Å"This kind of therapy involves the use of high-powered beams of energy to kill the cancer cell† (Ellmann, 2009, p. 49). It is done using a big machine that emits the rays to ensure that all the cancerous cells are killed. In most cases, some doctors will recommend this therapy instead of mastectomy to be able to save the entire breast tissue. Chemotherapy â€Å"This process involves the use of drugs to destroy the cancer cells† (Connolly, 2008, p. 52). Some doctors can recommend chemotherapy after surgery to avoid the cells forming again and it can be used before surgery to allow the tumor to shrink to a level where it can be safely removed. It is used in women whose breast cancer has spread to the other organs present in the body Hormone therapy â€Å"This is another of treatment to treat breast cancers especially is the cells are sensitive to hormones† (Backus, 2005, p. 379). It can be used after a surgery to make sure that the cancer does not rejuvenate or it can be used to reduce the size of the tumor before any surgery can be done. The drugs also prevent the hormones from attaching themselves to the cancer cells or they help to eliminate the production of estrogen especially in menopausal women . One disadvantage of these drugs is that they are only used for postmenopausal women. Herceptin breast cancer metastatic treatment Due to the increased level of research and dedication, new methods have been developed to curb the spread of breast cancer. One of this is by the use of herceptin breast cancer metastatic treatment. This kind of therapy is injected in the body by the use of a needle and can be used together with the other types of breast cancer drugs .It is new and still not in use especially in the developing world but its use is catching on. References Backus, M. (2005). Is the re a role for iodine in breast. The Breast, 10 (5), 379–382. Connolly, T. (2008). Robbins Basic Pathology. Philadelphia: Saunders. Ellmann, R. (2009). Breast carcinoma in men: a population-based study. Cancer, 101 (1), 51–58. Foster, J. (2008). Metalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 26 (3), 191–198. Hart, C. (2007). Breast Cancer. London: Faber Faber. This research paper on Risk factors, staging, and treatment of breast cancer was written and submitted by user Laila Good to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Affects of Emotions on Job Satisfaction and Commitment in the Workplace Essay Example

The Affects of Emotions on Job Satisfaction and Commitment in the Workplace Essay Example The Affects of Emotions on Job Satisfaction and Commitment in the Workplace Essay The Affects of Emotions on Job Satisfaction and Commitment in the Workplace Essay The Affects of Emotions on Job Satisfaction and Commitment in the Workplace ?The workplace is an environment filled with all kinds of people and personalities that come together and work for a common goal. Since it is rare that two people will have the same personality types, workers will always have different ways to solving problems and finding methods to complete tasks. Whether workers express how they are feeling openly or keep to themselves, emotions have an effect on job satisfaction and commitment. Both positive and negative emotions will affect how a person will describe their satisfaction with their job (Fisher 185). Depending on their emotions, workers will either be more committed at the workplace or less committed, and this could change daily. ?Sometimes, emotions can affect a workers commitment while on the job; a worker could have other things running through their mind and might not be as focused as they should be. Even though some emotions affect their commitment in the workplace, it is their emotions that are caused by things outside the workplace that affect their performance in the workplace. A worker could have carryover stressors that arise from problems at home andthose stressors are brought with them into the workplace (Schieman, McBrier and Van Gundy 138). Some daysemployees might be angry because they have so many things to do and not have enough time to do it, or worried about something or someone. When employees do allow their emotions that arousefrom home to affect them while they are at work, doesn’t necessarily mean that they aren’t going to work, it simply means that they will not be as focused because it is affecting their work-role (Schieman, McBrier and Van Gundy 138). This isn’t hard to understand either because as more and more women are joining the work force every day, many families have to share the household roles, as each has their own work roles as well. This means that men as well as women, have a larger amount of responsibility in their everyday lives and sometimes that can spillover intoworkplace causing some employees to allow this to affect their work. And while this affects job commitment, it also affects a workers job satisfaction. When discussing emotions in the workplace, one needs to realize that emotions can change very quickly, and workers could even feel different emotions at the same time. The New York Times did a survey in 2005, finding that employees that were closely supervised and isolated were feeling depressed in the workplace. Much of the satisfaction that employees get from the workplace comes from the work itself (Fisher 188). Emotions can change very quickly, an employee could be happy until their boss comes u p to them and tells them that they have to turn in a file by five o’clock, and the employeehasn’t even started working on it yet. When non work stressors spillover into the work place it can also affect job rewards and status (Schieman, McBrier and Van Gundy 141). When an employee doesn’t feel like they are achieving much in the workplace, it can lead to a decrease in job satisfaction. Emotions easily change from positive to negative or the other way around, and depending on the moment an employee’s satisfaction will differ, however it is highly unlikely that a worker will both very unhappy and very happy at the same time (Fisher 188). So job satisfaction depends on worker and how they feel about going to work. Obviously those who enjoy going to work and enjoy what they do at work will have a high sense of job satisfaction. While those who are stuck in a cubicle all day and don’t communicate with anyone won’t have the same sense of job satisfaction. ?I have had a job where I could not stand the thought of going to work, knowing that I would be doing the same thing as I did yesterday and it wasn’t going to change. In high school, I worked for my best friend’s father and he hired me as an assistant file clerk. My job was to make sure all the bills were paid for and filed in the correct folder. I sat at a desk all day, away from everyone else at the office and had to do the same thing everyday all summer. I just got bored from doing the same thing over and over every day for two months straight. Whenever I got the chance I would leave my desk and go see what everyone else was doing mainly because I just needed to break the monotonous work I had been doing for hours. It just seemed like everyone who was working there, hated it. Everyone was doing their own thing and really wasn’t interacting with the other workers in the business. I just didn’t understand how someone can hire all these people and not allow them to exchange ideas or ways of doing things. ?In all, emotions have an important affect on job satisfaction and commitment in the workplace. Workers want to have a job that is they believe is meaningful and makes them happy. When emotions are brought into the workplace from outside sources, it will affect how an employee performs in the workplace. The happier a person is the better that person will perform and the more committed they will be in the workplace. References Fisher C. D. (2000) Mood and Emotions while Working: Missing Pieces of Job Satisfaction? [Electronic version]. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 185-202. Schieman S. , McBrier D. B and Van Gundy K. (2003) Home-to-Work Conflict, Work Qualities, and Emotional Distress [Electronic version]. Sociological Forum, 18, 137-164.

Research Methods in Sales and Marketing for Tourism Essay

Research Methods in Sales and Marketing for Tourism - Essay Example Furthermore, the proponent provides examples in their application in the tourism sector. Quantitative research method Quantitative research is a common method used in investigating or finding information in various fields of studies. This method ensures that information can be transformed into figures for quantitative analysis. Quantitative research method preserves neutrality and sees to it that there will be no bias since the collected data will be used for quantitative analysis, so it is more numerically measurable (Bennett, 1986; Shi, 2008). In quantitative analysis, there is a need to come up with objective output because a researcher deals with figures and transforms them into essential information that can be subjected to more meaningful interpretation and source of information. One common quantitative research method is experimental method. In experimental method, the researcher could potentially obtain information from certain observations under controlled condition. Thus, t here are important things that need to be considered prior to obtaining the most essential information and one of them is to ensure the significance and validity of the entire method used. Quantitative research is quite flexible but its potential drawback could be its not being able to potentially explain all types of phenomena (Muijs, 2004). Qualitative research method Qualitative statements and concepts comprise the body of qualitative analysis (Shi, 2008). Qualitative research method still applies numerical data which potentially include counting and assigning numbers to observations, but the presence of qualitative statement and concepts prevail as its general core foundation. Thus, it may still turn out that all information under qualitative approach cannot be numerical in nature but in a verbal form (Creswell, 2003). Observations which are integral components of qualitative statements and analyses are important in qualitative research method because they would ensure that the analysis will be well presented and the research aim is substantially obtained. An interview for instance regarding certain issue may focus more on understanding the framework of the subject and this could potentially concentrate the analysis on general qualitative information. Qualitative method therefore can be done at multiple levels of analysis (Piekkari and Welch, 2004). This means a researcher could still potentially find information in using this method even at various levels of analysis. An interview or focus group for instance can essentially initiate this because what the researcher needs is to integrate various concepts or frameworks in order to bring the entire analysis at different levels, depending on the actual objectives. However, one general and potential drawback of qualitative method is that the sample size is small and non-random, making findings most likely not conclusive at some point (VanderStoep and Johnson, 2008). The differences It is noted based on the abo ve discussion that both methods of research; the quantitative and qualitative have potential advantages and drawbacks. Furthermore, they are an entirely different approaches; that is why they have significant noted difference. In the case of quantitative method of research such as survey or experimentation, it is important to have remarkable number of samples in order to make certain that the conclusion is conclusive. Sample should be numerically or statistically significant. On

The Future Success of Sony Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

The Future Success of Sony - Essay Example One of the main market segments, where Sony is still the market leader, is the gaming market. But competitors are soon catching up and it needs to innovate and make its But competitors are soon catching up and it needs to innovate and make its PlayStation better as competitors. Microsoft and Nintendo have already released their next generation consoles and it is high time that Sony releases its and makes the experience far better than the previous ones. The portable music player is another segment that the company has lost its market share, mainly to competitor Apple. In order to regain its market share, it has to come up with a new and innovative product that is more than just a music player. Instead of competing directly with iPod, Sony must try coming up with a product that is going to shake up the segment, like it has done with Walkman years ago or for matter for of fact Apple has done with iPod. It needs to reinvent itself in the television market as dominance in this market will result in an increase in demand for other products also. As it failed to identify the potential in the LCD market, it is now trying to play catch up. Instead, it must try coming up with next-generation televisions which is better than the LCDs. There are other segments to where the company needs to implement product innovation if it has to justice to the brand name it has achieved and replicate the success of the past. One of the major strengths of Sony us that it is considered to be a premium brand by consumers as it has gained the reputation of producing high quality, technically superior, innovative and reliable products. Hence, products coming out of it are generally considered by the consumers to be among the best. Like Apple, it is also a lifestyle brand which means that consumers take pride in owning Sony products. This is a great platform for the company to market and sell its products. The main weakness of the company is the brand image that it has acquired in the recent past. It is now seen as the shadow of its past successes. It has been criticised for not tapping new opportunities and failing to innovate. The company was once a market leader/innovator but now has become a follower. Its overall financial performance has not been encouraging to shareholders.

The Replacement and Cosntinuity Models Essay Example for Free

The Replacement and Cosntinuity Models Essay Paleonthropologists generally use the following 2 models to explain the origins of modern humans. The replacement model The continuity model   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Each of these models has its basis that could be traced back to hundred of years ago. The two models would be discussed explicitly with the use of examples for easy understanding. The Replacement Model   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This model was founded by Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews. They proposed that modern humans evolved from archaic Homo Sapiens 200,000 – 150,000 ( 2000 centuries ago) only in Africa and then some of them migrated into the rest of the world due to one reason or the other replacing all of the Neanderthals and other late archaic Homo Sapiens beginning around 1000 centuries ago. Since the interpretation of this fossil record is accepted by some people, it means all people today or modern humans share a relatively modern African ancestry which simply means we are all Africans. All other lines of humans that had descended from Homo erectus presumably became extinct.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As we can see, the regional anatomical differences that we can among humans today are recent growths evolving mostly in the last 400 centuries.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This hypothesis is also referred to as the Noah’s ark or African replacement model. The accepted view of the out of Africa model is that Africa exchanged genes with Eurasia, which shared genes with East and Southeast Asia and there are two evidences supporting the replacement model: the fossil record and DNA. So far, the earliest form of modern Homo sapiens skeletons came from Africa. This simply means that there are no homo sapiens existing today that would not be traced back to Africa.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though John Relethford and other critics of the replacement model have had the greatest diversity in DNA simply because there were more people living in Africa during the last several years and this would lead us to the explanation of continuity or multi-regional model. The Continuity Model   Ã‚  This model was advocated by Milford Wolpoff, of the University of Michigan, he proposed that modern humans evolved more or less simultaneously or at the same time in all major regions of the old world from local archaic homo sapiens. Which means that homo erectus were available in all regions of the earth ever since inception. The hypothesis of this model states that modern homo sapiens had multiple origins from existing local populations. Each local population of archaic humans gave rise to a population of modern humans. This model was formulated around 1992 at University of Michigan. ( Turnbaugh, et. al# 323) . They advance their claim by stating that through gene flow, the archaic Homo sapiens gene was given greater variability thus enabling it to produce greater adaptations. By this process, they assume that we modern humans materialized.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From a personal perspective, it is the continuity model that makes more sense. Because it claims that modern human came into existence through Homo erectus that was available in all region of the earth. This means that each region has its founding homo erectus.    Example I to support personal view   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Modern Chinese are seen as having evolved from Chinese archaic Homo sapiens and Homo erectus. This means that the Chinese and some other people in the world have great antiquity in place.    Example II to support personal view Indonesia/Australia   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Medley of cranial features is used to argue that modern aborigines are descended from Javanese Homo erectus. The traits that were familiar between the Javanese Homo erectus and the modern humans living in Indonesia and Australia regions include: Receding forehead Facial prognathism Source Jorgen Holm in   Human evolution

Contributions Of Martin Luther King

Contributions Of Martin Luther King Martin Luther was a controversial Christian theologian who made a significant contribution towards both the development and expression of Christianity. Luther questioned the widespread corruption of the Catholic Church, exceptionally prevalent during his lifetime. He preached that faith alone justifies salvation, as opposed to good works, an emphasis being promulgated by the clergy. Additionally, Luther highlighted the importance of Scripture as he believed that the message of Jesus had become misplaced amongst an overemphasis on ritual and symbolism. He quoted Romans (1:16-17) For I am not ashamed of the Good News; it is the power of God saving all who have faithà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Accordingly, Luther believed that Jesus Christ was the ultimate model for human behaviour. These three key understandings were to ultimately shape the far-reaching contribution Martin Luther would provide to Christianity. Evaluate the contribution of ONE significant person or school of thought in Christianity (6 marks) Martin Luther was a controversial Christian theologian who made a significant and far reaching contribution towards both the development and expression of Christianity. Born in 1483, Luther lived during a time of widespread corruption within the Catholic Church. Especially of concern to Luther was the sale of indulgences, simony and nepotism amongst church leadership. The impact of the Black Death had left a largely uneducated clergy in Europe. These leaders utilised many forms of corruption to ensure wealth for the Catholic Church, and promised purchasers of indulgences and relics a ticket to heaven. In response to these problems in 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the door of the Wittenburg Church. Luther wished to reform the Catholic Church and to reassure Christian adherents that salvation was attainable through their faith, not through good works. Additionally, Luther highlighted the importance of Scripture as he believed that the message of Jesus had become misplaced amongst an overemphasis on tradition, ritual and symbolism. He quoted Romans (1:16-17) For I am not ashamed of the Good News; it is the power of God saving all who have faithà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Accordingly, Luther believed that Jesus Christ was the ultimate model for human behaviour. Luthers actions and consequent excommunication (1521) from the Catholic Church were to ultimately shape his contribution to Christianity. Although the 95 these would be addressed at the Council of Trent (1545-63), the Council essentially dismissed Luthers calls for reform. However, his impact remained. Luther inspired other reformers and ultimately a new Protestant variant of Christianity (and within it Luthers own denomination the Lutheran church) resulted. Assess the contribution of ONE significant person or school of thought in Christianity (20 marks) Martin Luther was a controversial Christian theologian who made a significant contribution towards both the development and expression of Christianity. Luther was concerned with the widespread corruption prevalent within the Catholic Church during his lifetime, and the subsequent failure of the Catholic Church to address these issues. Three key understandings would lead Martin Luther to devote his life to transforming Catholicism. Firstly, Luther reassured Christian adherents that salvation was attainable through their faith, not through good works. Secondly, he highlighted the importance of Scripture, as he believed that the message of Jesus had become misplaced amongst an overemphasis on tradition, ritual and symbolism. He quoted Romans (1:16-17) For I am not ashamed of the Good News; it is the power of God saving all who have faithà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ This lead to Luthers third key understanding, that Jesus Christ was the ultimate model for human behaviour. Christianity before Luther: Simony Nepotism Indulgences (Salvation) Priesthood Corruption Sacraments Papal Authority Black Death Transubstantiation (Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ) Wealth of Catholic Church inequalities and spiritual shallowness (Luther) Unethical behaviour Expression/practices over ritualised Luthers Actions: 1517 95 theses on church door Defied the Catholic Church Excommunication (1521) Ultimately, the formation of new VARIANT of Christianity (but remember this was never Luthers INTENTION he wanted to REFORM the Catholic Church). Lutheran Church based on Luthers views of what individuals need to attain Salvation Sacraments (2) Baptism and Eucharist Consubstantiation (Eucharist representative of body and blood of Christ) Salvation attainable by the individual, based on ones faith Publication of Bible in local vernacular German Scripture focus of religion Authority Jesus/God Married clergy Liturgy less formal and less ritualised Christianity after Luther: Widespread questioning of Catholic Church Birth of new Christian variant Protestantism Development of Protestant denomination: Lutheran, Calvinist Baptists, Church of England etc Whilst Luthers protests started à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦as an effort to purify the life and teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, it eventually produced separate churches that grew into a third major strand of Christianity to stand alongside Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism. (Living Religion text p98) Counter Reformation (the catholic Churchs response to the Protestant Reformation) Council of Trent from 1545-1563 upheld papal primacy by proclaiming that Scripture and tradition are equally important and complementary sources of Gods revelation, and by clarifying the Roman Catholic belief in the seven sacraments. The Evangelical Awakening a dramatic spiritual renewal in Western Christianity Vatican II the twenty-first ecumenical council in the history of the Catholic Church (1962-1965). Three major aims spiritual renewal in the light of the gospel, updating church teaching, discipline and organization, and the promotion of unity for all Christians (ecumenism) Describe the contribution of ONE significant person or school of thought in Islam (3 marks) Imam Al Shafi is a significant and influential person within Islamic history. Undertaking a systematic revision and organisation of the existing Muslim law, Al Shafi established a system of interpretation of Islamic jurisprudence which he termed Usul al-Fiqh. This method incorporated the already existing sources of jurisprudence, the Quran and the Sunnah, however, it dictated additional authority to both the Ijma and the Qiyas. Shafi was inspired by the teachings of Muhammad, who believed in the importance of the scholar since à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the cure of ignorance is to ask and learn. Evaluate the contribution of ONE significant person or school of thought in Islam (6 marks) Imam Al Shafi (767-820CE) is a significant individual within Islam. Shafi was born during a time when confusion and disorder over the Islamic law was creating social instability and corruption within society. Al-Shafi wished to resolve the differences between the two existing schools of thought in order to create a uniform response to situations which arose throughout the many new Islamised states, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦his historic achievement was to forestall the development of independent regional systems based on Medina or Kufaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Ruthven) Shafi dedicated himself to this task in his firm belief that the purity of the faith had to be maintained. Al Shafis creation of a unified system of jurisprudence subsequently allowed greater cooperation within the Islamic world. In the Kitab al-Risala, Shafi outlined Usul al-Fiqh which emphasised the importance of the Quran, Sunnah, Ijma and the Qiyas. Of these he believed that the Quran as the divine word of Allah held the most significance. Additionally, Shafis commitment to determining the isnad, or chain of transmission of the hadith, earned him enormous respect amongst scholarly circles. Shafis interpretation of Islamic jurisprudence eventually led to the creation of the third major Sunni school of thought. This interpretation of Sharia law continues to be followed by millions of Muslims in contemporary society. Assess the contribution of ONE significant person or school of thought in Islam (20 marks) INTROUCTORY REMARKS: Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi (767-820) significantly influenced the development of the Islamic faith. Responsible for establishing the four foundations of fiqh (usul al Fiqh), Al-Shafi is considered the founder of a unified interpretation of Islamic law or jurisprudence. Furthermore, through the consequent evolution of his own school of Islamic thought, Al-Shafi continues to make a significant contribution to the development of both the belief and practices of Islam in the contemporary world. BASIC OUTLINE BEFORE Al-Shafi: Social and economic tensions problems raised by ruling and administering a diverse and rapidly growing empire Often geographic and cultural influences determined the response of the interpretation of the law Al-Shafi believed that laws which were valid in one place were not necessarily so in another and therefore required systemisation to ensure the purity of the Islamic faith. Legal decisions had come to be based on tradition of the people not Muhammad this was because Difficulty interpreting Islamic law following death of Muhammad TWO schools of law already established Imam Malik (700-767) and Imam Hanifa (716-795) Rationalists based their beliefs on the teachings of the Quran. However, Quran had little legislative material (Hanifa) Traditionalists based their beliefs on the teachings of the Sunnah. However, the model of living (Sunnah) encountered new challenges which needed to be addressed (Malik) THEREFORE: A revision and systemisation of Islamic law needed. Shariah is not a clearly articulated set of rules available for immediate reference. Instead, it includes interpretations of revealed sources the Quran and the Sunnah. Shafi insisted on an established set response to these situations which could be applied across the newly Islamised states Shafi joined the Hadith scholars to determine the chain of transmission (isnad) and therefore the authenticity of the hadith Shafi studied under Malik and combined his own interpretation, along with that of Malik and Hanafi to create a synthesised response. According to Ruthven: Despite the differences between the three principal schoolsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ they were generally agreed in accepting the system of roots developed by Shafi. For that reason his role as the greatest systematiser of early Islamic law makes him more than just the founder of one of the four madhhabs. Viewed retrospectively, his historic achievement was to forestall the development of independent regional legal systems based on Medina or Kufaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ this supreme intellectual achievement makes Shafi one of the great unifiers of Islam. RESPONSE: Shafis book Kitab al-Risala Usul al-Fiqh (or al-Risala) cited FOUR sources of Fiqh (practical application of the Sharia): Quran words of Allah Sunnah actions of Muhammad Al-Shafi puritanical view Muhammad words, not those of his companions. Isnads to be authentic (in accordance with the chain of transmission) Ijma (consensus) of the Muslim community. Previously the ijma of the scholars (ijtihad) had been consulted the Quran and the Sunnah. Shafi insisted on the ijma of the people. Qiyas (analogy) strict systematic reasoning Al-Shafi believed that because Allah had provided, in Sharia, a guide for all human life, it must be possible to extend, by use of analogy, the application of legal material in the Quran and the Sunnah so that they apply to other cases. An example of his contribution to the expression of Islam can be found in his interpretation of Sura 4:43 which claims that men are unclean for prayer if they have touched women. This was taken by Shafi to mean any physical touching including accidentally bumping into a woman. It was therefore further extended to apply to the practice of washing before prayer (ghusl). This was Al-Shafis system of determining Islamic jurisprudence. There are many different interpretations based upon the five different schools: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi, Hanbali (Sunni) and Jaffari (Shia). The School of Islamic Fiqh, established by Imam Al-Shafis students, provides interpretations of law which are used by all four Sunni schools of law. Islamic legal tradition practices pluralism that allows it to maintain that these schools may differ in their legal opinions, but remain equally valid (they have consulted the same sources to reach a legal decision). Describe one significant practice within Christianity (3 marks) The sacrament of Baptism is a rite of passage undertaken by adherents symbolising their initiation into the Christian tradition. Although not all Christians identify with the physical nature of the rite, such as the age of the initiate and the rituals utilised, all Christians are marked with the sign of the cross. Similarly, all Christians are baptised with the recitation of the words, I baptise you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. The belief in the Trinity, the rejection of Satan and the forgiveness of sins are common elements in the baptism ceremony across the Christian variants. Demonstrate how one significant practice within Christianity expresses the central beliefs of this religious tradition (6 marks) Baptism begins the spiritual journey for the adherent within their faith community emphasising the importance of being in touch with, and striving to understand, the transcendent. Baptism symbolises the divine nature of the Christian tradition and makes present the central beliefs through the repetition of sacred stories and ritualistic actions. The belief in the Trinity, the rejection of Satan and the forgiveness of sins are common elements in the baptism ceremony across the Christian variants. In each of the Christian variants, baptism is the Churchs way of celebrating and enacting the embrace of God and the promise of salvation. Peter replied, repent and be baptisedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Acts 2:38-39). At the time of Christ it signified that the person being baptised became a follower of Christ and acquired a relationship with him. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I (Paul) also baptised the house of Stephanasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (1 Corinthians 1:16) Early baptisteries (the part of the church where baptism happened) showed that a person was led down steps to be immersed in water before emerging on the other side. There was, and remains, an identification with Jesus dying and rising. The Catholic Catechism recognises that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦From the beginning, the revealed truth of the Holy Spirit has been at the very root of the Churchs living faith, principally by means of baptism. Within Orthodox Christianity the rite of baptism has four roles. Firstly, to remove original sin, to remove all other sins committed before the time of baptism if the person is beyond the age of infancy, to unite the person to the community of believers and to open the door of salvation and eternal life to him or her. Analyse one practice within Christianity explaining its significance to both the individual and the faith community (20 marks) The sacrament of Baptism is a rite of passage undertaken by believers in celebrating, symbolising and making present the central beliefs of the religious tradition of Christianity. It is an experiential religious act involving the transformation of the individual. Baptism as a rite of initiation welcomes the individual into the Christian tradition and links the individual, community and divine. However, not all Christians identify with the physical nature of the rite. Quakers believe that the whole of life is sacramental. To be a member of Christs body involves no outward rite, it requires instead an inward transformation of ones whole life. While other denominations have differences involving the rituals used and the age of the initiate. Baptism celebrates a familys and a communitys love for the initiate who is welcomed into the community of believers. The candidate (infant or adult) is provided with a god-parent/ sponsor to help them with their initiation as a Christian. Baptise first the children, and if they can speak for themselves let them do so. Otherwise their parents or other relatives speak for them. (Hippolytus in the Apostolic Tradition c.215) For Catholics, the sacrament of Baptism is the first step in a lifelong journey of commitment and discipleship. It is followed by years of catechesis before being completed late by Confirmation and the Eucharist, the summit of Christian initiation. Baptism is the Churchs way of celebrating and enacting the embrace of God and the promise of salvation. Peter replied, Repent and be baptised (Acts 2: 38-39) Baptism happens not only to the individual, but also the wider Church. At the time of Christ it signified that the person being baptised became a follower of Christ and acquired a relationship with him. I (Paul) also baptised the household of Stephanas (1 Corinthians 1:16) The rite is celebrated with the community present and actively participating. It is the community, who will journey with them throughout their life. Infant Baptism is the preferred form of the rite for both Catholic and Orthodox Christians. However, adult Baptism may also occur. The Christian initiation of adults for both Catholic and Orthodox Christians begins with their entry into the catechumenate and reaches its culmination usually at Easter in a single celebration of the three sacraments of initiation: Baptism, Confirmation and the Eucharist. Baptism symbolises the divine nature of the Christian tradition. It emphasises the importance of being in touch with, and striving to understand, the transcendent. This includes comprehending the purpose of life and the nature of life after death. Early baptisteries (the part of the church where baptism happened) showed that a person was led down steps to be immersed in water before emerging on the other side. There was identification with Jesus dying and rising. On behalf of the child (infant baptism) or as an adult the ceremony of initiation occurs. This includes the symbolism of water and oil and the declaration of faith. The water represents life and recalls the baptism of Christ by John the Baptist. The Baptisimal candle symbolises Christian status as an Easter people, and signifies the passing on of faith to those being baptised. The white garment represents the Churchs belief that Baptism sets them free from Original Sin and lets them put on Christ. Immediately following the baptism of the child in Orthodox Christianity Chrismation occurs. In this practice, the Orthodox Church differs from the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches where the two sacraments are often separated. Orthodox Christians believe baptism is a personal participation in Easter the death and resurrection of Christ, and Chrismation a personal participation in Pentecost- the coming of the Holy Spirit as the children receive the seal of the gift of the Holy Spirit (Romans 8). The child then receives new clothes. The Priest together with the Godparent and the child walks around the Font, three times. Each time he chants: As many of you as have been baptised into Christ, have put on Christ. Alleluia. (Galatians 3:27) The infant is then tonsured, where four pieces of the childs hair are cut in the sign of the cross. As the child is now recognised as a full member of the church he/she receives Holy Communion. Baptism makes present the central beliefs of the Christian tradition through the repetition of sacred stories and ritualistic actions. Baptism begins the spiritual journey for the adherent. The lighting of the Pascal (Liturgical Year) Candle at the Catholic ceremony, links the initiated to a life of union with the Church. This candle is light for the individual at their Baptism and again at their funeral service. The candidate is also marked with the common sign of the initiated the sign of the cross and the recitation of the words, I baptise you in the name of t he Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. The belief in the Trinity, the rejection of Satan and the forgiveness of sins are all evidenced in the Baptismal ceremony. The catholic Catechism recognises that From the beginning, the revealed truth of the Holy Spirit has been at the very root of the Churchs living faith, principally by means of Baptism. Within Orthodox Christianity the rite of Baptism has four roles. Firstly, to remove original sin, to remove all other sins committed before the time of Baptism if the person is beyond the age of infancy, to unite the person to the community of believers and to open the door of salvation and eternal life to him or her. The Gospel read at the ceremony reinforces the belief in the presence of God. And Jesus came and said to them, All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, to the close of the age. (Matthew 28 16-20) The Baptist Church takes its name from the conviction that followers of Jesus should be immersed in water as a visible and public display of their faith. Baptists believe There is no salvation apart from personal faith in Jesus Christ as Lord. Baptists emphasise a believers baptism by full immersion, after a public profession of faith in Christ as saviour. Unlike most Christian denominations Baptists do not baptise infants because of their belief that a person must be old enough to make a public profession of faith in order to be baptised. Therefore, the foundational sacrament of Baptism unites the community of believers. It determines the spiritual life journey of the believer and reinforces the central tenets of the faith to those who witness the initiation of the individual. Describe one significant practice within Islam (3 marks) The fifth pillar of Islam, Hajj, is seen as the ultimate expression of Muslim solidarity. Hajj draws together Muslims from all over the world forming one umma in order to worship the One God. The Quran states perform the visit and pilgrimage to Makkah for Allah (Sura 2:196) explaining that Hajj is a re-enactment of the trials and tribulations of the Prophet Abraham, his second wife, Hagar, and his son, Ishmael (linking believers to the central Islamic belief rusula). The Hajj also re-enacts the journey of Mohammad and is hence a metaphor for the journey of life. The ultimate goal of Hajj is to ensure the achievement of God consciousness (tawid).

Malcolm X Essay

During the 1960’s, the powerful speeches spoken about equality by two men about black empowerment, ultimately lead to them to their deaths. The words spoken by Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X were so strong and influential, helping them gain great audiences and followers. King preached out over the â€Å"brotherhood† among races, and the importance of non-violence. Malcolm X, also advocated for the end to segregation, but emphasized the needs for blacks to become independent of the white man, and stand up for themselves. Both King and Malcolm X had similar goals in their minds, but took distinct paths to attain those goals. Both of their many speeches varied with great distinction. While the content and underlying ideas of the speeches may have different examples and ideas, they both use many common literary devices and rhetorical strategies to attain their audience’s attention. It is through Malcolm X’s use of emotion, together with the use of other strategies, that he ultimately created a more passionate influence on his audience. The early lives that these men lived had much influence on how they would later view racism, and speak out on segregation. Martin Luther King Jr., born Micheal Luther King Jr., was raised with a middle-class family, where his mother and father stressed the importance of obtaining an education (Martin). Malcolm X, born Malcolm Little, came from a place filled with fear and danger, where the â€Å"Klansmen shouted threats and warnings [about how] ‘the good old Christian white people’ were not going to stand for [his] father’s ‘spreading trouble’† (X, Malcolm and 1). Malcolm’s early childhood experiences would be there to haunt him for the rest of his life. The experiences that these men encountered at a young age, planted the seeds to how they would flourish into the voices of the oppressed African-American people, and the ways in which they would deliver their speeches. Malcolm X, was furious at the idea that whites where trying to keep b lacks in their place, and were the reason why equality was still not being achieved. From a young age, Malcolm had suffered the effects of racism, never forgetting his eighth grade teacher telling him that â€Å"[he had] to be realistic about being a nigger. A lawyer- [that was] no realistic goal for a nigger† (X, Malcolm and 38). X, an intelligent student sharing similar dreams as King of becoming a lawyer, where soon shattered, causing him to drop out of school, and turn to drugs in order to get money. After being in jail for six years, Malcolm finally turned to Allah, where he began preaching black supremacy, and the separation between blacks and whites. Martin Luther King Jr.’s most prominent â€Å"I have a Dream† speech is lucid with its use of emotion, and all ­usion. King argues that African-Americans are not free according to the rights outlined in the United-States constitution. King not only presents his argument to the African-American community, but rather to all Americans, white and black. King delivers his argument successfully through his use of ethos. Throughout the speech, King alludes to his Christian morals, speaking out on how, â€Å"one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; â€Å"and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together† (Luther King). King acknowledges the fact that the majority of his audience believes in Christianity, therefore understanding the allusion to the bible. Finally, King refers to his audience as â€Å"his people.† This implies that King sees his audience equal and also it shows that not only the black people are â€Å"his people.† King presents his argument towards freedom, strategically placing emphasis on his moral authority. Malcolm X, flustered by King’s peaceful approach to obtaining African-American rights, wrote, â€Å"The Ballot or the Bullet,† as a direct response to King’s famous â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech spoken only a month before. Like King, Malcolm appeals to the emotions of his young black audience, stirring them with anger; and simultaneously, striking fear into the minds of his white listeners. Malcolm’s goal for this speech was to persuade his audience to take action into their own hands and bring about a serious long lasting change. â€Å"The Ballot or the Bullet† begins with Malcolm’s attempt to connect with his audience. He begins by greeting both his friends and enemies speaking out, â€Å"I just can’t believe everyone in here is a friend and I don’t want to leave anybody out† (X, Malcolm. Speech). X, immediately grab s the attention of his audience by, identifying with them, also putting aside religious aspects and focusing on simply â€Å"working together and putting aside their differences to fight for their rights† (Critical). As Malcolm continues delivering his speech, his use of repetition keeps his audience aroused with anger. X repeats, â€Å"I am not†¦Ã¢â‚¬  allowing his audience to identify with him, especially when he says that he is â€Å"not an American, but a victim of Americanism† (X, Malcolm. Speech). Here, Malcolm has fallen victim to racism. When X refers to â€Å"Americanism† he refers to things the United States is guilty of, like sexism, racism, and the power that the government has over people. In this quote, he doesn’t feel like a citizen of America anymore, although he should. He is equal to everyone else, but is treated otherwise just because he is African-American. The strong and powerful words that these two men spoke out will always be remembered in the history of the civil rights movement. Although King is a heroine in the eyes of the movement, his methods of obtaining a change were very amicable. It was Malcolm X’s strong militant diction, and his power to stir the crowds’ emotions that helped him instill more passion in what he was arguing for. X’s approach may have arisen from his catastrophic childhood, instilling him to speak out on black supremacy, and the liberation from having the government having control over them. Nevertheless, King’s approach allowed him to gain more followers, but it was Malcolm X’s rage against the white man, that allowed him to create a more passionate audience. Works Cited Boyer, Paul S. â€Å"The Turbulent Sixties.† The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1990. Print. â€Å"Biography.† Martin Luther King -. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Sept. 2012. . â€Å"Critical Analysis: The Ballot or The Bullet.† Socyberty. Web. 02 June 2012. . Luther King, Martin. Speech. I Have a Dream. Washington D.C. 28 Aug. 1963. American Rhetoric. Web. 02 June 2012. . Malcolm X. Dir. Spike Lee. Prod. Spike Lee. By Spike Lee and Arnold Perl. Perf. Denzel Washington, Angela Bassett, Albert Hall, and Al Freeman. Warner Bros., 1992. DVD. â€Å"Martin Luther King, Jr.† SparkNotes. SparkNotes. Web. 05 June 2012. . X, Malcolm, and Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: One World/Ballantine, 1992. Print. X, Malcolm. Speech. The Ballot or the Bullet. Cory Methodist Church, Cleaveland. 3 Apr. 1964. Social Justice Speeches. Web. 02 June 2012. .